What It Means To Be Human Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

What It Means To Be Human - Research Paper Example The human being is comprised of a complex amount of systems and characteristics hence can be defined from numerous perspectives. Many philosophers have expressed different view points on the subject matter. This paper will analyze the view points of Willard and Aquinas. Dallas Willard expresses his view points through cultural shifts, classical philosophy and modernity. In the process he investigates and analyzes arguments concerning human nature and derives the conclusion that humans were are solely distinguished by their ability to love and be loved and to serve and be served by others. Thomas Aquinas viewed human nature as a paradox, with the defining trait of dividing between spirit and matter. The paper will compare and contrast the different view points of these philosophers and how they argue and support their view points. Thomas Aquinas perceives the link between consciousness and matter ‘as humanity’s desire for God as an expression for the life of the trinityâ €™ (Beattie, 2012). Humans are the only living species who have the ability to differentiate their existence between spirit and matter. This is a defining characteristic as humans are able to differentiate themselves for other animals. ... perspective provides insight on the subject matter as the ability to value the meaning of life allows humanity to preserve it and create a society which is guided by boundaries which enable the preservation of life. This is a well structured argument as this is present in the human society and has not been defined as a trait in other species. The ability of separation of an inner self the physical being also enables one to act upon the means that cater for ideal conditions in society. Humanity also has the ability to ‘utilize its intellect to transcend its material confines with a unique imagination and freedom’ (Beattie, 2012). The modern philosophical referral to this matter is known as the problem of consciousness. The theory of evolution fails to explain the ability of one species, humans, to develop a conscience. Many philosophers agree with Aquinas’ viewpoint as they accept the ideology that the ability of mankind to question his very being and try to find w ays to study and analyze reason for his existence and that of other species (Rose, 2008). Other species do not have the capacity to question their existence and other life forms around them. Most species are naturally aware of their existence and way to carry out their lives to put them at an advantage in their community. However, the complexity of this analogy is only characteristic to humans. Other species analyze their community for survival whilst humans analyze theirs for advancement and improvement of life. The fact that evolution does not show these traits in other species is Aquinas basis in disregarding this concept in the process of defining human beings. It is also his rightful basis on disregarding the ideologies of fellow philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Rene Descartes who perceive our

Defying the Iranian revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Defying the Iranian revolution - Essay Example These were especially initiated by the opposition. It is in this respect that Shah escaped after realizing that he had no place, in Iran. The new political system developed, in 1979. It must be noted that literature also has an impact on the Iranian society. Literature was fundamental and most authors were against Shah’s westernization policy. This attribute is mostly characterized by the Persian culture. An example of such authors is Jalal Al-e Ahmad. Some of his key literary works on the same topics include his book Gharbzadegi (Weststruckness) and his novel (The School Principal). His wife, Simin Daneshvar, was also a prominent writer. She authored the book entitled â€Å"Savushun†. These are also some of the authors who were adversely harassed by the SAVAK (Axworthy60). In my opinion, the Shah’s regime and his special SAVAK team concede to be the most noteworthy factor that initiated the writing of the Reading Lolita in Tehran. After this white revolution, Ne zhat Nafisi’s mother became one of the women who emerged as parliamentarians. This was the first time a woman was in parliament, and this is what influenced the writer to compose the novel. This clearly reflects the freedom of women, in Iran. Ahmed Nafisi, her father, had a strong relationship with the mayor of Tehran. Their relationship was strong and it was a shock to her when she received the information that her father was arrested by the SAVAK on charges of bribery and corruption. This obviously changed her perception about the relationship. However, this was not the true picture. The then prime minister, Hassan, had arrested her father on a false account. Ahmed had shown splendid skills in public speaking and had held numerous State offices. Prime Minister Mansur, therefore, felt that... Defying the Iranian revolution Even the opposition did not pose a strong threat to him in the beginning of his reign. As it turns out, Shah lost his power when Mohammad Mosaddeq became Prime Minister, in 1951 because he fought for nationalization the oil industry. Mosaddeq was arrested by the cooperation between the Iranian army and CIA. After this incident, Shah created the SAVAK, in 1957. The was responsible for training this group. SAVAK’s task was to suppress opponents of the Shah of Iran and give a close watch over the people. They also fought opponents of the Iranian people. They employed all kinds of torture and starvation in prison, in addition, to the physical liquidation of the opposition leaders. Shah announced, in 1963, that the white revolution will bring women's freedom and it would support the social life. He also maintained that the industrial life and the laws that protect the family would be appropriated. He particularly focused on saving children and women from oppression from men. Theref ore, this improved the relations with other countries and the Iranian people had a peaceful life. Khomeini incited people against the government, and carried out demonstrations against Shah. Later, SAVAK arrested Khomeini and sent him to exile in Turkey in 1963. This was the cause of the demise of the Shah's rule. The Iranian people are mostly conservative, especially those who live in the suburbs. Azar hoped for a better Iran after shah’s regime. She hoped for justice and democracy after the repressive regime falls.

Buying My First Car Essay Example for Free

Buying My First Car Essay A Bit of Memoir We rounded the corner and there it was, the stout, perfect looking black Jeep Cherokee that my dad and I had just driven and hour to look at. It looked like every other one that I had seen in pictures, but there was the feeling that this one could possibly be mine. The week before, I had been furiously searching Craigslist and Jeep Forum classifieds looking for a Jeep, particularly a Cherokee with low miles, little to no rust, and the right price, between the years 1997 and 1999. With the tight guidelines that I had for the car, it made it hard to find one. However, acquiring a Cherokee was only the first part; I had many plans once I had one of my own, plans to lift it and put some big mud tires on it, along with some other jeep essentials. My friend had his lifted Cherokee for a few months, and I had wanted one just like it for quite a while. After calling up multiple private sellers and used car dealerships, I had found one not far from me. A used car dealership had three Cherokees, all with low miles, and relatively fair prices. My dad and I decided to go check them out, with the hopes of being able to talk the salesman down a few hundred dollars. After driving a half hour or so, we arrive at the dealership, and there, parked in the front three spots were the jeeps. We made our way over and I was instantly checking them all out, making sure that I kept my cool. The salesman comes out, a big guy who looks like he could be on steroids, and he and my dad started talking. Instantly, like any used car salesman, he goes right into telling us about how awesome these Jeeps are, that they’re in perfect condition. We had narrowed down the three jeeps to one, and naturally we wanted to take it to a local mechanic. Most people would have no problem with this, but this guy did. After he refused to let us take it to our mechanic, we were turned off. In addition, he had given us a price on the phone, and then he told us a higher price when we were there talk ing face to face. At that point we were out of there. I was truly upset; I had mgotten my hopes up that I would be driving one of those Jeeps home. My dad told me not to be upset, and that we would find another one that same day. Still at the dealership, we were still sitting in our parked car; both of us on our iPhones looking up classifieds near our area. I find one that looks good, and it’s only a ferry ride away. This one was from a private seller and she had just listed it up that morning, so my dad called her up immediately. We told her we could come to see it that day, and she agreed. We raced to catch the next ferry, which we barely made. Driving off the ferry ramp, we headed to the address the lady gave us. We ended up in a somewhat rough neighborhood, but we decided we came too far to turn around because of some Mexicans with baggy shorts down to their ankles and flat brim hats. We finally got there, and there it is, sitting on the side of the road outside a small conventional house. The lady walked out her front door, and I was already looking under the jeep and checking it out. Everything is checking out, the miles were low, there were very little signs of rust, and I was getting excited. Eventually I was behind the wheel and out for a test drive. The engine ran a little rough, but it was nothing I couldn’t fix on my own. So my dad and I are sitting in the car on the other side of the block, and he asks me if I want it. I, of course, said yes, and we went back and worked a price out. Even though the lady only came down from her price a mere 50 dollars, we still ended up making the deal. Finally, my own car, and the exact one I wanted. I drove it all the way home with no plates, riding on the hopes that the police weren’t out that night. It was exciting to finally be driving the car that I would call mine. I was already imagining the I remember parking it on the ferry and looking at it from the upper deck of the parking garage. I got it home and everyone came out the front door of my house as I pulled down the driveway. It seemed as if my family was more excited about it then I was, which puzzled me. I felt proud of myself for finding the Jeep and being able to bring it home the exact same day. All the weeks of searching for a car had amounted to this one day, where it all happened in a matter of hours.

Should The Death Penalty Be Mandatory For Homicide?

Should The Death Penalty Be Mandatory For Homicide? Death penalty is considered to be a cruel and inhuman punishment for crimes mostly for the murder since 19th century. Death penalty is also called capital punishment which is the supreme punishment of murder or killing. Death penalty in Texas, in USA for homicide is shouldnt be mandatory because it is a brutal and inhuman punishment. Texas has the record for the number of executions. This death penalty issue is a controversial issue because some states and people think that the use of capital punishment should be mandatory for all murders otherwise the number of homicide or crimes will be increased dramatically and the criminal will get more chance to do more crimes like homicide. Besides this most of the nongovernmental institution like Amnesty International, United Nation does not want to let the death penalty mandatory for murders. According to Irene Khan, the secretary general of Amnesty International, The death penalty is the ultimate cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment. Beh eadings, electrocutions, hangings, lethal injections, shootings and stoning have no place in the 21st century (Amnesty International USA, Death Penalty: 2,390 executions in 2008 worldwide, 72 per cent in China). States of Texas use electric chair, lethal injection, lethal gas, hanging, and firing squad to execute the guilty. Firstly, I believe that punishment like death penalty for homicide which is an in justification to human being and violation of human rights should not be mandatory. Secondly, the cost of death penalty for homicide is higher than the cost for the sentencing alternative of life imprisonment without possibility of parole. (The Death Penalty: Specific Issues). Thirdly, the danger of erroneous convictions and executions of the innocent people may increase because of the usage of false testimony, the willful suppression of evidence, and coerced a confession. Again, People have the right to live. Who gave the right to the state to take a decision of capital punishment against a person? (The Death Penalty V Human Rights: Why abolish the death penalty? September 2007). Firstly, death penalty for homicide is a violation of fundamental human rights. For homicide death penalty should not be compulsory because it offers society not further protection but further brutalization. The state can exercise no greater power over a person than that of deliberately depriving him or her of life. However, the state does has the right to punish a person by sentencing him or her to death? From the critics view the answer should be No. (The Death Penalty V Human Rights: Why abolish the death penalty? September 2007). Capital punishment denies the legal process of law. The approval of death penalty is contradictory to law where the human rights is being preserved. The imposement of death penalty differs because of the color of the people and the financial condition which is injustice and against human rights. In June 29, 1972, the US Supreme Court declared capital punishment as a cruel and unusual punishment which proves that death penalty is a violation of human righ ts and injustice to the people. (Death Row Facts: Texas Department of Criminal Justice). A person who is innocent but punished for the deeds which he or she did not is a clear violation of human rights. Secondly, death penalty for homicide in Texas should not be mandatory because of the knowing use of false testimony, the willful suppression of evidence, and coerced a confession which has, at times, resulted in the conviction and execution of innocent persons on capital punishment. Factors like police and prosecutorial misconduct, misinterpretation, inadequate legal representation, undeveloped technology also lead the judge to give a punishment like death penalty for homicide which shouldnt be done with the people who are innocent. In USA since 1973, because of the evidence of their wrongful convictions, over 130 people have been released from the death row. And in Texas the release of four men from the death row on grounds of innocence prove that death penalty for homicide is a wrong decision. (Regional summaries, Death Penalty and Innocence: Amnesty International USA). For example, Randall Dale Adams and Clarence Brandley was the victims of the misconduct of the judges and was rel eased from the death row after years of struggle to prove them innocent (C. Dieter, Richard: The Future of Death Penalty in the U.S.: A Texas Sized Crisis). Thirdly, the cost of death penalty for homicide is higher than the cost for the life imprisonment which is an alternative to death penalty. If it is mandatory for all murders the cost will increase more and more. In death penalty for homicide, large proportion of the money spent prior to and during the trial. There is a little cost in post-conviction of proceedings in death penalty. Even if the cost of post-conviction is being eliminated, the cost of the death penalty for homicide still would be more expensive than other alternative punishments. From the survey on Texas about the cost of the death penalty we can see that the cost of death penalty for homicide is estimated $2.3 million per case with having 300 people on the death row and the homicide rate in this state is one of the highest in the country. The expansion of death penalty shrinking the budget of the sates for police departments, drug treatment programs, education, and other government services that help prevent crime. I n Texas a homicide death penalty costs taxpayers accounting $2.3 million, about three times the cost of imprisoning someone in a cell at the highest level for 40 years. (Ellis, What Politician Dont Say About the High Cost of Death Penalty). In addition, Taxes spent approximately  £183.2 million dollar in just six years on the death penalty for homicide. As US Supreme Court ruled that the jury must be informed in advance if the defendant would be eligible for parole whenever a sentencing jury has the ability to impose death penalty (Capital Punishment, Death penalty data). The use of parole makes the capital punishment very costly. People who support the death penalty to be mandatory for homicide argue that death penalty deter capital crime. They refer that death is the surest way to bring it about the most total prevention from functioning in a normal way and irrevocable. People fear about being punished by sentencing to death before doing any homicide. Because of the death penalty for homicide criminals think before doing anything wrong. (Den Haag, The Death Penalty: A Debate). Again, there is no way to make a wrong decision for the judge which will cause the life of an innocent people. The judge consider everything such as the mode of incident, explanation from the witness and obviously the technology like DNA test, medical inspection of the body which makes the case easier for the authority to identify and sentenced to capital punishment of the guilty. Furthermore, Firstly, Death penalty doesnt deter crime because there are enough potential murderers to replace all those incapacitated. Crime rates are influenced by the other factors not because of the capital punishment. The threat of life in prison deters more than any other term of punishment like death penalty for homicide. Life in prison is unpleasant and horrible than the death penalty and painful to die by the passage of time. It makes the feelings of the prisoner to die than living in such a condition which create mental illness for them. By sentencing to prison make an example for the murderers from where they can realize the harsh punishment. However, criminal who are adamant to do murder cant be controlled or kept quiet whatever the punishment it is. As we can see from the research on Texas, the crime rate grew up by 24% and 46% of violent crime. (C. Dieter, Richard: The Future of Death Penalty in the U.S.: A Texas Sized Crisis). Secondly, the argument named the killing of innocent th at death penalty supporter shows for homicide is not true because there is a great chance of doing something wrong about justification. Human beings are not out of making wrong decision and the judges do too. Again the use of technology in identifying criminals is not available all over. The use of new technology like DNA and other medical instrument which are very expensive and states like developing and poor countries can not afford this type advance technology. In conclusion, we can say that death penalty for homicide is controversial issue all over the world. The use of death penalty may cause the life of innocent people as the use of false testimony, the willful suppression of evidence, and coerced a confession. The use of death penalty for homicide is a very costly one because of the trial which means the cost of pre-conviction proceedings. Death penalty is a violation of fundamental human rights. People have the right to live. A judge cannot decide whether a person should die or not. The creator has created us and will make the decision whether a person should die or not. The prison system should be more about rehabilitation than simply introducing capital punishment or removing the criminal from society. It costs a few dollars per day to have a parole officer check on a parolee than the huge cost of death penalty. And it could be an example for the murderers. I believe that we are human being and we are beyond mistake. Death penalty do esnt deter crime as it is a simple way than making the life imprisonment which makes the life of a criminal terrible in every step. However, we should give a chance to the criminal to correct as forgiving is great virtue. Proper steps should be taken to abolish capital punishment and make the world to be free from cruel and inhuman punishment.

Things Fall Apart Contradicts Stereotypes and Stereotyping in Heart of

Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart Contradicts Stereotypes in Conrad's Heart of Darkness In "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness," Chinua Achebe criticizes Joseph Conrad for his racist stereotypes towards the continent and people of Africa. He claims that Conrad propagated the "dominant image of Africa in the Western imagination" rather than portraying the continent in its true form (1793). Africans were portrayed in Conrad's novel as savages with no language other than grunts and with no "other occupations besides merging into the evil forest or materializing out of it simply to plague Marlow" (1792-3). To Conrad, the Africans were not characters in his story, but merely props. Chinua Achebe responded with a novel, Things Fall Apart: an antithesis to Heart of Darkness and similar works by other European writers. In Things Fall Apart, Achebe tells the story of an Ibo man, Okonkwo, and the tragedies which he has to endure. Africans are represented as individuals capable of speech, not just one massive conglomerate of natives. Their customs are not reg arded as eccentric or bizarre, but as the norm-functioning no differently than the variety of Western customs do. And the land itself is described as a mix of towns and farms, not a mysterious land which breeds insanity. In almost every respect, Things Fall Apart contradicts the stereotypes set up in Heart of Darkness. Achebe opens his lecture, "An Image of Africa," with the story of a student who sent him a letter saying how he was "particularly happy to learn about the customs and superstitions of an African tribe," not realizing that "the life of his own tribesmen in Yonkers, New York, is full of odd customs and superstitions" as well (1784). Western thou... ...nters many of the degrading stereotypes that colonial literature has placed on Africa. In his lecture, "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness," Achebe documents the ways that Conrad dehumanizes Africans by reducing their religious practices to superstition, saying that they should remain in their place, taking away their ability of speech, and depreciating their complex geography to just a single mass of jungle. Achebe carefully crafts Things Fall Apart to counter these stereotypes and show that Africa is in fact a rich land full of intelligent people who are, in fact, very human. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness." The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: Norton, 2001. 1783-1794. Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor Books, 1994.

Healthcare Finance Essay

Like with any household, businesses have some expenses that are the same each month, and others that fluctuate based on utilization. The mortgage, car note, and insurance premiums for the most part are the same throughout the year, but the utility bills, credit card bills, and cell phone bills may increase or decrease monthly based on usage. In health care organizations, several types of cost can be classified according to the amount of services provided. This can be referred to as activity, utilization, or volume (Gapenski, 2012). Reference for Business (2012) says, â€Å"Fixed and variable expenses are the two main components of a company’s total overhead expense† (p.1). This paper will address how costs in healthcare organizations are classified according to their volume, and the importance of cost allocation. â€Å"†¦for healthcare providers, a cost involves a resource use associated with providing or supporting a specific service† (Gapenski, 2012, p. 14 8). With fixed and variable cost classification the range of volume should be specified (Gapenski, 2012). In health care organizations, the actual future volume is uncertain for the number of patient days, number of visits, number of enrollees, or the number of diagnostic tests (Gapenski, 2012). However, a general idea of the volume range over a particular period of time is usually known (Gapenski, 2012). Fixed costs are known and are not related to volume within a relevant range (Gapenski, 2012). Unless the volume deviates excessively in a positive or negative direction, fixed cost is not affected. Basu (2012) says, â€Å"Fixed costs remain constant within a specific range of activity. However, if volume increase or decrease past certain levels, fixed cost may change† (p.1). For example, if a physician’s office staff can handle up to 10,000 patient visits, as long volume stays within the relevant  range of 8,000 to 10,000 defined by the office, the fixed costs remains un changed (Gapenski, 2012). Although most fixed costs such as equipment, weekly payroll, and rent are fixed for a period of time, an increase or decrease in volume in the future could mandate changes/adjustments to the fixed costs (Gapenski, 2012). Fixed costs dose not fluctuate with volume changes within a relevant range, but variable costs does. â€Å"Costs that are directly related to volume are called variable costs† (Gapenski, 2012, p. 150). Reference For Business (20120 says, â€Å"Variable costs are those that respond directly and proportionately to changes in activity level or volume†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 1). Using the physician’s office above as an example, some of their variable cost could be gloves, tongue depressors, disposable exam gowns, and needles. As patient volume fluctuates, the cost associated with these supplies will also fluctuate in relation to the volume changes. Because some costs are organizational and some are specific to a subunit, it is necessary to create a system that a llocates costs (Gapenski, 2012). â€Å"A critical part of cost management at the subunit level is the assignment, or allocation, of direct costs. Costs allocation is essentially a pricing process within the organization whereby managers allocate the costs of one department to other departments† (Gapenski, 2012, p. 188). Overhead cost such as, facilities management personnel, financial staffs, and housekeeping and maintenance personnel, must be allocated to the money generating departments of an organization (Gapenski, 2012). Cost allocation assigns the costs of an organization to the entities that incurred the costs. Cost allocation data allows the organization to make better decisions in, tracking, assigning, and controlling costs, as well as the offering and pricing of services. (Gapenski, 2012). Cost allocations can also assist with reducing cost, because departments are held accountable for the full cost associated with running their department. As a result, mangers will use costs saving methods to keep c osts down, since evaluations, compensation, and promotions are sometimes dependent on economic results (Gapenski, 2012). Costs can be fixed or it can be variable. â€Å"Peavler (2012) say, â€Å"Fixed costs are the costs associated with the product that have to be paid, regardless of the volume of the product you sell. Variable costs are directly related to sales† (p.1.). â€Å"†¦some cost are more or less predictable because they are independent of volume, while other costs are much less  predictable because they are related to volume† (Gapenski, 2012, p. 150). Whether fixed or variable, costs are usually allocated within an organization. Averkamp (2012) says, â€Å"The goal is to assign the costs based on the root cause of the common cost instead of merely spreading the costs† (p. 1). Knowledge and utilization of these concepts, helps with current and future planning for an organizations financial success. References Averkamp, H. (2012). What is cost allocation?. P. 1. Retrieved from http://blog.accountingcoach.com/what-is-cost-allocation/ Basu, C. (2012). Effects a Sales Volume Increase or Decrease Will Have on Unit Fixed Cost. P. 1. Retrieved form http://smallbusiness.chron.com/effects-sales-volume-increase-decrease-uni†¦ Gapenski, L. C. (2012). Healthcare Finance: An Introduction to Accounting and Financial Management (5th ed.). Chicago, Illinois : AUPHA Press / Health Administration Press. Peavler, R. (2012). Fixed and Variable Cost. P. 1. Retrieved from http://bizfinance.about.com/od/pricingyour product/qt/Fixed_Variable_Cost†¦Ã‚ ­ Reference for Business. (2012). Fixed and Variable Expenses. P. 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Eq-Inc/Fixed-and-Variable-Ex†¦

The Acoustics of Speech in Individuals Who Stutter

The Acoustics of Speech in Individuals who Stutter: Literature The Acoustics of Speech in Individuals who Stutter Introduction Research concerning acoustics in children who stutter, who have recovered from stuttering and adult stutterers shows that there is a lack of coherency in the data collected and reforms need to be made to the methods involved. The research that has been conducted on stuttering pertains mostly to the condition in children; stuttering is most prevalent in younger children and in most cases will be corrected by the later years of youth. Researchers working within the field are confronted by many problematic factors when both conducting their research and specifically in analysing data. Diverse methods of data compilation and independent methods of interpretation mean that what one scientists concludes from an experiment may not support established theories and existing information on the subject. It can be assumed that analysis of acoustics in stuttering needs to be done with a specific framework that all researchers can work from. Issues like the diagnosis of stuttering complexes from mild, moderate and severe; the focus on frequency changes; and subtyping have all been encountered and brought up for review by researchers who wish to have a more fully rounded database from which to study stuttering in all its forms. A review of literature on the subject exposes many difficulties within the field of research and offers suggestions on how these might be addressed and overcome. Once a basic premise for observation, study and analysis is reached, the database will be much more comprehensive and useful to future research. Literature Review Acoustic analysis is the foundation to stuttering research conducted by many different scientists and scholars; the ways in which this research is conducted vary, however, and therefore can produce subsequently varied results and different ways of looking at stuttering itself. Some researchers are of the opinion that stuttering is heavily influenced by the actual perception of listeners, and that though analysis of reaction and perception of acoustics in stutterers it is possible to more fully comprehend those characteristics of speech that are a part of the disorder (Amir, Yairi). Through analysis of speech patterns in preschool aged children, the researchers concluded that interval duration in speech patterns must exceed 70 ms to be considered normal speech; under 50 ms interval duration was therefore attributed to stutterers. Some researchers have taken acoustic analysis to a new level with the use of the computer as a more failsafe analytical tool; due to a lack of specific acoustic parameters by which to classify stuttering the computer offers a more solid foundation for diagnosis and treatment (Brosch, Hage, Johannsen). Research conducted by these authors was inconclusive because of a lack of cohesive data on the subject, however it is their belief that with further study one might better understand the correlations between specific acoustics and the different stages of stuttering. The primary factor thought to be attributed to stuttering in different stages is age. Chang, Ohde and Conture believe that it is a disorganization of specific factors of speech, in particular the transition rate of speech formation, that can be cited as a precursor to stuttering. This research is key to the development of tuttering studies because currently there are very little data or theoretical models to explain the conditions that lead to stuttering in children. Through acoustic analysis not only of children and adults who currently stutter, but the acoustic analysis of children who will later develop a stutter, these researchers believe that more will be understood about the progression of the disorder and subsequen tly the treatment methods themselves. Given the generalities of much stuttering data, it has been concluded that subtyping of the disorder would help greatly with further research and the uture specialization of treatments and diagnoses (Yairi). In this case, the acoustic analysis carried out by researchers would be made very specific and varied: attention would be paid to transition rates, vowel duration, particularities of speech disfluency and other inconsistencies attributed to stuttering. Yairi’s research has yet to lead to subtypes of the disorder, however the belief remains that through more acoustic analysis, enough data will be gathered to start separating the disorder into more than one general field. Frequency changes and second formant transitions in reschool children who stutter persistently and who have recovered from the condition show general differences in speech patterns between the two groups. Most poignant was the fact that the research showed frequency ch anges in persistent stutterers were discreet while the recovery group showed marked frequency changes (Subramanian, Yairi, Amir). Research such as this helps to support Yairi’s theory that subtyping may be useful in the field. Along these lines, Armson and Kalinowski pointed out the difficulties in performing acoustic analysis on stutterers when the condition itself may be changing the data. These researchers feel that to properly assess acoustic data they must learn how to separate those factors out which cause stuttering, and which are inherent in individuals only after one has begun to stutter. The acoustics of one individual in a pre-stuttering state might show related frequencies and vowel duration, as well as the same speech rate and consonant-vowel repetitions to that of a stutterer; the researchers maintain, however, that the cognitive functions of one who stutters might be significantly different that that of an individual who does not stutter but will later develop the disorder. Cognitive and acoustic factors of stuttering are currently inextricable from those of the prestutterer, and until these can be separated the data gathered on the subject will remain generalized and of less value than it might be. As well as this, information on acoustics must be analyzed both during the stutter and during normal speech in the same individual. Paden, Abrose and Yairi studied the phonological acoustics of stutterers and non-stutterers to ascertain whether there were any significant differences between the two groups. Through the observation of children over a two-year span, attention was paid to not only current differences in the phonological skills of the children but the changes in those skill levels over time. They found that the phonological skill level of children who had recovered from stuttering were markedly higher than that of children who currently stutter; over the course of two years, however, the skill levels were developed and no significant difference could be shown. Flipsen Jr. , Hammer and Yost point out that perhaps the major flaw in the field is the fact that Clinicians are esponsible for identifying stuttering cases and labelling them either mild, moderate or severe. This means that Clinicians must rely on their own individual acoustic analysis to interpret the severity of stuttering case by case, and in doing so are likely to be inconsistent. Personal analysis of the acoustics of several different individuals who stutter means that although analysis is based on regimented di sfluency factors, such as vowel duration and frequency, relying solely on acoustic interpretation though listening cannot be scientifically sound. The researchers propose that a better method must be contrived in a study that supports Brosch, Hage and Johanssen’s computer analysis theory. In keeping with the idea that research on stuttering must be more specialized, Louis, Myers, Faragasso, Townsend and Gallagher have studied a particular disorder that is often attributed to stutterers but which they insist is a different disorder. Cluttering is an irregularity that has to do with the rate of speech: people with this condition will either speak more rapidly than normal or they will have inconsistencies in the rate of speech. While many researchers will have cluttering placed in the same field as stuttering, Louis (et al) believes that it is generalizations like this that cripple the scientific community. Acoustic analysis of cluttered speakers shows clearly that the condition is not the same as stuttering: while stuttering has a more clustered effect on the phonemes of speech, cluttering is less specific to certain vowel and consonant groups. Gohinho, Ingham, Davidow and Cotton have discovered that in treatment of stuttering, the reduction of short-deviation phonetic intervals has a direct affect on the condition. Acoustic analysis of normal stuttering and manipulated speech in normal stutterers suggested that phonetic interval distribution in the two speech groups were generally different; this theory was inconclusive. In terms of treatment, however, it has been useful and is thought to offer new possibilities in treatment procedures. Ingham, Fox, Ingham, Xiong, Zamarripa, Hardies and Lancaster conducted their own research based on gender differences between stutterers. Data were collected in terms both of acoustics and of cerebral blood flow in adults. While females are more likely to recover from stuttering in childhood and males are generally more susceptible to the condition, this research found that the stages of recovery were not significantly different between the gender groups. The researchers concluded that chronic stuttering was related to abnormal speech-motor and auditory region interactions. Healey and Ramig conducted research into stuttering that was specific to treatment, specifically treatment length and its effect on differing severities of the condition. Acoustic analysis of patients undergoing treatment showed that the severity of each case made no significant difference to recovery and the transition from one level to another; similarly treatment time made no difference in the progression and recovery of stutterers. Max and Caruso also explored treatment options, finding that fluency adaptation through the process of repeating specific readings was improved over other methods of treatment. With specific phonological aspects in the readings, designed to ontain certain phrases and vowel-consonant groups that give stutterers trouble normally, these were given to treatment patients to repeat until any changes were observed in speech patterns. Repetition treatments have traditionally very popular and due to their superiority over many other methods these treatments continue to dominate in the field. Specific study of the different aspects of language and acoustics means that a scenario for stuttering can be pieced together slowly and fo rmed of many different speech parts as well as cerebral and other physical data (Natke, Grosser, Sandrieser, Kalveram). Research into the effect of stressed syllables within speech and stuttering was conducted with reference to the length of such syllables. Natke and his colleagues hypothesized that stressed syllables were responsible for stuttering in many individuals, and studies proved that these were indeed catalysts for stuttering in most cases. Whether or not duration of stressed syllables has anything to do with disfluency is not yet apparent. Currently, Yaruss believes, no correlation can be drawn between utterance rates and response time latency. His own research explored these and consequently still was not supportive of the theory that conversational speaking rates were actually related to response time latency. He does believe that if more research were conducted into this area, a correlation would indeed be found; inadequate methods of acoustic analysis are cited as the reason why hypotheses such as these remain unproven. In Yairi’s response to the criticisms of Wingate on his theories of diversity in the field of acoustic study, he asserts that there are many different ways to study stuttering and that these varying methods should be valued. Wingate proposes, like many scholars, that there should only be one method of study so that subsequent data compilations are relevant to one another and more easily formed into future subdivisions of the disorder. While Yairi does not dispute the value of specialization within the field for the sake of greater knowledge and better treatment plans, he does maintain that a fundamental diversity among researchers is a positive attribute. In terms of acoustic analysis, this means that the lack of cohesion between existing research would persist. Evaluation of Published Research and Conclusions Overwhelmingly, researchers in the specific linguistic field that study stuttering and its related conditions are asking for continuity in research methods and data organization. While independent researchers and study groups might be able to find their own way of cultivating date, studying acoustics of stutterers, non-stutterers and recovering stutterers and interpreting this data, it is essentially of no use to the rest of the field unless aspects of the study can be repeated. Researchers like Brosche, Hage and Johanssen are particularly forward thinking in their approach to acoustic analysis, because unlike so many of their colleagues they are not continuing to rely on what they believe to be inferior techniques. The use of computer analysis in terms of stuttering acoustics not only means that a discrepancy between professionals can be ruled out in the future but that further information can be gathered concerning speech patterns that are undistinguishable to the unaided ear. Yairi is also correct when he says that there is more than one way to study stuttering. If all researchers relied on exactly the same techniques then no breakthroughs could be expected in the field; despite this fact most acoustic analysts who wish to better understand stuttering simply want a basic framework upon which to base their own studies and interpret the results of others. If a certain degree of flexibility could be maintained in acoustic analysis while certain fundamental factors were incorporated, researchers would be in a better position to interpret and present their own results in relation to the work of colleagues. Factors that might feature in each research project might nclude vowel duration, second formant transition, conversational speed and other specific disfluency forms. By using these factors in all research related to stuttering, whether the study is based on such factors or not, will mean that although two research projects might be based on completely different theories the results can still be comparatively put together. If one research projec t focuses on brain activity and blood flow during stuttered speech, and another focuses on frequency, results may still have relevance to one another because of the use of basic acoustic analysis. Coherency is needed in this field of research so that results and future treatments are made clearer. Implementing basic acoustic analyses in every research project will help to form a stuttering database that can be referenced by every researcher. Reference List Amir, O. , Yairi, E. (2002). The effect of temporal manipulation on the perception of disfluencies as normal or stuttering. Journal of Communication Disorders, vol. 35, 63-82. Armson, J. , Kalinowski, J. (1994). Interpreting results of the fluency speech paradigm in stuttering research: Difficulties in separating cause from effect. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, vol. 37, 69-82. Brosch, S. , Hage, A. , Johanseen, H. (2002). Prognostic indicators for stuttering: the value of computer-based speech analysis. Brain and Language, vol. 82, 75-86. Chang, S. , Ohde, R. , Conture, E. , (2002). Coarticulation and Formant Transition Rate in Children who Stutter. Vanderbilt University. Flipsen Jr. , P. , Hammer, J. , Yost, K. 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